Table of Contents
Overview
Key Concepts in Health Economics
Health economics is grounded in several key concepts that elucidate the intricate dynamics within healthcare systems. Fundamental to this field are concepts such as demand, supply, costs, and the production of health, which collectively form the basis for understanding healthcare economics.[1.1] A critical method employed in this field is economic evaluation, particularly cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA), which assesses healthcare interventions to determine the most effective allocation of limited resources.[11.1] CEA compares the costs and health outcomes of various interventions, providing insights into the expenditure required to achieve specific health benefits, such as life years gained or deaths prevented.[13.1] Another essential concept in health economics is efficiency, which encompasses opportunity cost and marginal analysis. These principles are vital for understanding resource allocation and decision-making processes within healthcare systems.[4.1] Health economics aids policymakers and healthcare providers in making informed choices regarding medical treatments and health policies, addressing issues such as rising medical costs and access to care.[4.1] The role of health economics extends to informing public policy, particularly in balancing healthcare access, quality, and costs. Policymakers utilize economic analyses to evaluate the value for money of different health interventions, which has become increasingly important in the context of public budget allocations for healthcare services.[8.1] Furthermore, economic policies significantly influence public health outcomes, emphasizing the need for a comprehensive understanding of health economics in shaping effective healthcare systems.[9.1]In this section:
History
Historical Roots of Health Economics
The historical roots of health economics are marked by significant legislative milestones that have shaped its evolution. A key event was the passage of the Health Information Technology for Economic and Clinical Health Act in 2009, which prompted a nationwide shift to electronic health records in medical facilities across the United States.[47.1] This legislative action highlighted the economic implications of integrating technology into healthcare practices. The evolution of health economics has also been characterized by the exploration of fundamental principles such as efficiency, opportunity cost, and marginal analysis. These concepts are crucial for understanding the dynamics of healthcare markets and resource allocation within the sector.[48.1] The importance of these principles is evident in various research trends and milestones throughout the history of health economics, underscoring its role in addressing contemporary healthcare challenges.[46.1] Since the establishment of the World Health Organization (WHO) in 1948, numerous public health challenges have required collective action through science, solutions, and solidarity. The timeline of public health milestones published in 2023, marking WHO's 75th anniversary, highlights significant achievements in campaigns against diseases such as tuberculosis, malaria, yaws, syphilis, smallpox, and leprosy.[49.1] These accomplishments have improved global health outcomes and inspire future health challenges.[49.1] Understanding these historical developments is crucial for analyzing the economic impact of contemporary factors in healthcare, as they continue to shape expectations and trends in health economics.[45.1]Evolution of Health Economics as a Discipline
The evolution of health economics as a discipline has been significantly shaped by economic theories and methodologies developed in the post-World War II era. This period was pivotal in addressing healthcare resource allocation challenges, leading to the establishment of principles that emphasize efficiency and equity in health systems. Efficiency aims to maximize population health within resource constraints, while equity ensures fairness in health resource distribution, minimizing disparities among population groups.[50.1] Culyer highlights that equity must be pursued within the framework of maximizing efficiency gains, underscoring the interconnectedness of these principles in health policy.[50.1] The application of these principles through various healthcare policies and resource allocation mechanisms has profoundly impacted health system structures and outcomes globally.[51.1] Epidemiological research has been crucial in shaping health policy decisions by providing essential data for health management, including vaccination programs and disease surveillance.[52.1] Historical examples, such as Edward Jenner's work on vaccination, demonstrate how observational data can lead to significant policy changes.[53.1] In recent years, the integration of epidemiology and economics, particularly through economic epidemiology modeling, has gained prominence, especially in response to public health crises like the Covid-19 pandemic.[56.1] This integration is vital for predicting epidemic effects and evaluating strategies to address them, enhancing the relevance of health economics in contemporary policy discussions.[57.1] Additionally, the balance between public and private financing in health systems has emerged as a critical area of study within health economics. Countries with well-developed public healthcare systems, such as the United Kingdom and Canada, illustrate the benefits of tax-funded services, including lower administrative costs.[59.1] However, public healthcare funding's reliance on economic stability and political will presents ongoing challenges.[59.1] The relationship between public and private finance can significantly influence healthcare delivery's efficiency and equity, as evidenced by various national models.[60.1] Interdisciplinary research has enriched health economics by integrating social, territorial, economic, and political perspectives, alongside community experiential expertise, providing insights into health inequalities.[63.1] A notable example is the establishment of accountable care organizations, which involve teams of primary care physicians, nursing staff, and specialists working collaboratively to care for patients. This model is suggested as an effective strategy for reducing patient care costs and improving health outcomes.[64.1] Furthermore, health economics research encompasses various interconnected areas, each presenting unique challenges, particularly in healthcare financing and policy analysis. This analysis is complex due to the need to efficiently allocate limited resources within healthcare systems.[66.1] Institutions are encouraged to identify the greatest challenges at the intersections of health economics, policy, global and public health, pandemic health emergencies, quality of life, and mainstream market economics, highlighting the ongoing need for interdisciplinary approaches in addressing these contemporary issues.[67.1]In this section:
Recent Advancements
Innovations in Health Economics Methodologies
Recent advancements in health economics methodologies have significantly enhanced the understanding of healthcare costs and resource allocation. Central to these advancements is the evolution of economic modeling techniques, which have become increasingly sophisticated. The integration of new technologies and real-world data is expected to improve predictive capabilities regarding the long-term impacts of health interventions on both costs and patient outcomes.[125.1] One notable development is the application of advanced modeling techniques that address the limitations of traditional models, such as Markov models. These new techniques introduce time-dependency into state transition models, providing a more nuanced understanding of disease progression and healthcare costs.[124.1] Health economic models (HEMs) are now being utilized to inform decision-making in healthcare, including resource allocation and policy development, although their construction and validation remain resource-intensive.[128.1] Moreover, artificial intelligence (AI) is poised to revolutionize the development of health economic models. Techniques such as machine learning and natural language processing can streamline the modeling process, enhancing the accuracy of predictions regarding healthcare costs and improving the overall effectiveness of health interventions.[128.1] Economic evaluations using these innovative modeling techniques are crucial for estimating the value of public health investments. They explore both incremental and population effects of policy changes, providing valuable insights for policymakers.[129.1] For example, cost-utility analysis, a specific type of economic evaluation, assesses policy alternatives in terms of their relative costs and health outcomes, expressed through measures like quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs).[103.1]Impact of Technology on Health Economics
The integration of technology, particularly big data analytics (BDA), is set to significantly impact health economics and public health policy formulation. By systematically incorporating BDA into various phases of the health policy cycle, healthcare data analytics aims to enhance the precision and effectiveness of decision-making, leading to improved healthcare outcomes and cost management.[97.1] Moreover, smart health data and methodologies are powerful tools for refining public health policy at local levels, such as cities or districts. The advancement of public policy to promote the use of big data in healthcare is expected to have substantial implications for healthcare costs, thereby enhancing the overall efficiency of health systems.[98.1] Evidence-based methods have validated the effectiveness of predictive models in BDA for public health policy development. These models enable real-time, accurate decision-making, crucial for effective public health policy.[99.1] For instance, big data analytics has been applied in projects supporting evidence-based public health policy decision-making, such as those addressing hearing loss through clinical validation platforms.[99.1] Furthermore, data sharing initiatives have been shown to improve patient outcomes and facilitate evidence-based healthcare decision-making. A systematic review by the European Commission identified ten priority projects in Europe leveraging big data to enhance health system sustainability. These projects focus on various data types, including general practitioner records, hospitalizations, and laboratory analyses, to create comprehensive national data warehouses aimed at improving treatment quality and effectiveness, combating chronic diseases, and promoting healthy lifestyles.[100.1]Informed Decision-Making
Role of Cost-Effectiveness Analysis
Cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA) is essential in guiding health funding decisions by evaluating the trade-offs between benefits, harms, and costs of healthcare interventions. This assessment aids organizations in making reimbursement decisions, designing benefits, and negotiating prices globally.[142.1] CEA quantifies the relative costs and benefits of different interventions, highlighting potential trade-offs and informing whether the resources required for an intervention are justified by the health gains it produces.[142.1] The incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) is a key metric used to express these trade-offs, effectively serving as a "price" for an additional unit of health gained through an intervention.[142.1] Globally, health systems employ CEA to compare the benefits of new technologies against those that must be sacrificed when reallocating resources to fund these innovations.[143.1] This approach is crucial for systems aiming to improve population health within budget constraints.[143.1] The focus on health equity has led to the development of distributional cost-effectiveness analysis (DCEA), which extends traditional CEA by assessing the costs and health gains of interventions across different socioeconomic groups.[144.1] Integrating CEA into healthcare decision-making presents challenges, such as data availability, unfamiliarity among decision-makers, and difficulties in estimating differences among socioeconomic groups.[141.1] Additionally, the use of cost-effectiveness evidence faces resistance from stakeholders, including policymakers, the pharmaceutical industry, and patient advocates.[140.1] Despite these challenges, there is an increasing emphasis on incorporating value, typically measured by ICERs, into healthcare decisions and practice guidelines.[140.1] This trend is evident in organizations like the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices, which uses cost-effectiveness evidence to inform national immunization policy recommendations.[140.1] As healthcare technologies evolve, the role of CEA is expected to grow, underscoring the need for ongoing discussions about the ethical and methodological issues in health service policy.[139.1]Evidence-Based Policy Making
Growing scientific evidence highlights the necessity of evaluating the health implications of policies, programs, projects, and plans that influence the root causes of health outcomes. This underscores the importance of health-informed decision-making, which is essential for effective policy development in health economics.[130.1] The integration of health economics into public policy provides a structured framework that emphasizes efficiency, resource allocation, and the analysis of complex healthcare issues, such as rising medical costs and access to care.[134.1] Health economics and health technology assessment (HTA) have emerged as critical tools, particularly as healthcare systems face escalating demands for services amid limited resources. These disciplines offer evidence-based frameworks that assist policymakers and stakeholders in making informed decisions regarding healthcare access and resource allocation.[134.1] HTA, in particular, has gained traction over the past four decades, influencing decisions related to the reimbursement and adoption of new medical technologies and interventions.[163.1] Moreover, health economics plays a vital role in addressing disparities in healthcare access and outcomes among different populations. By recognizing that health is influenced by factors beyond medical care, such as socioeconomic status and environmental conditions, health policy research can enhance understanding of the multifaceted nature of health disparities.[154.1] Policies aimed at improving access to care, such as the Affordable Care Act’s Medicaid expansion, have demonstrated the potential to improve health outcomes and reduce mortality, although the effectiveness of certain models, like accountable care organizations, remains mixed.[155.1]In this section:
Health Technology AssessmentMedical TechnologiesSocioeconomic StatusNatureHealth Disparities
Budgeting And Resource Allocation
Strategies for Effective Resource Management
Effective resource management in healthcare necessitates a strategic approach that emphasizes efficiency, innovation, and collaboration. Organizations must balance budget constraints with maintaining high standards of patient care. This balance can be achieved by leveraging technology, optimizing resource allocation, and fostering a culture of continuous improvement.[181.1] A key strategy involves emphasizing preemptive care to mitigate the financial impact of community health issues on hospital budgets. For example, annual vaccination campaigns can significantly reduce hospitalizations during flu outbreaks.[182.1] Additionally, operational budgets are crucial for monitoring and balancing revenues and expenses, ensuring effective resource allocation to meet both immediate patient needs and long-term goals.[183.1] Prioritization among competing demands is essential, as healthcare demand often exceeds available resources. Board members and senior administrators are increasingly seeking practical methods to improve priority setting under these constraints.[185.1] Despite the understanding that resource allocation decisions should be based on multiple explicit criteria, many healthcare systems still rely on historical patterns and ad hoc decisions.[186.1] Establishing formal and explicit processes for decision-making in priority setting and resource allocation is vital for improving healthcare delivery. Budget-impact models can significantly enhance resource management by estimating the annual impact on a health plan budget following the reimbursement of new interventions. These models also provide estimates of changes in population health outcomes during the same period.[187.1] While various studies have explored the relationship between healthcare spending and health outcomes, they often report multiple estimates of the elasticity of health outcomes—typically measured by mortality rates or life expectancy—relative to healthcare spending.[188.1] This understanding is crucial for healthcare organizations as they navigate resource allocation strategies that can lead to improved healthcare delivery outcomes.Evaluating Health Programs And Policies
Assessment of Public Health Interventions
Assessment of public health interventions is a critical component of health economics, focusing on evaluating the effectiveness, efficiency, and equity of healthcare policies and programs. This process involves comprehensive evaluations that identify the impact of healthcare interventions, thereby informing evidence-based decision-making and improving health system outcomes.[222.1] Economic evaluation methods, particularly cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA), are essential in this assessment. CEA examines both the costs and health outcomes of interventions, providing valuable insights into their health and cost impacts compared to alternatives.[228.1] This analysis is especially useful in resource-limited settings, where it helps prioritize interventions that maximize health outcomes relative to their costs.[227.1] The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) has utilized economic evaluation in key program and policy decisions, notably in immunization policy. The establishment of the CDC Steven M. Teutsch Prevention Effectiveness Fellowship in 1995 exemplifies efforts to enhance expertise in economic evaluation within the agency.[223.1] Public health professionals can leverage these evaluations to guide resource allocation decisions by identifying, measuring, and comparing the costs and consequences of various public health interventions.[224.1] In the context of vaccination programs, economic evaluations have been instrumental in shaping their design and implementation. For instance, evaluations that consider antimicrobial resistance (AMR) sensitivity can inform value-for-money comparisons of different vaccines within national immunization programs.[238.1] Furthermore, studies have shown that immunization can alleviate households' catastrophic financial burdens, underscoring the broader economic implications of vaccination initiatives.[240.1]Measuring Health Outcomes and Effectiveness
Measuring health outcomes and effectiveness is a crucial aspect of health program evaluation, particularly in the context of resource allocation and decision-making in public health. Program evaluation serves as a systematic approach to enhance public health actions by employing methods that are useful, feasible, ethical, and accurate.[235.1] This evaluation is essential for determining the effectiveness and efficiency of health programs, policies, and organizations in achieving their intended outcomes.[236.1] Cost-utility analysis (CUA), a specific type of cost-effectiveness analysis, is a key methodology used in evaluating health outcomes. It assesses policy alternatives in terms of their relative costs and outcomes, using utility-based measures such as quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs) and disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs).[248.1] These measures aggregate data on both the quality and quantity of life, enabling effective comparisons of different health interventions.[248.1] The application of a decision model in CUA allows for the computation of health benefits, facilitates comparisons across multiple interventions, and incorporates evidence from various sources, rather than relying solely on a single randomized controlled trial (RCT), which may have limited generalizability.[249.1] This comprehensive approach supports informed resource allocation decisions in global health.[247.1] Cost-Effectiveness Analysis (CEA), also known as Cost-Utility Analysis (CUA) in health economics, focuses on a single, non-monetized effect or outcome, compared to the costs of different actions.[246.1] This methodology informs decision-makers about health priorities and resource allocation, especially within the constraints of finite budgets faced by public health organizations.[232.1] CUA emphasizes the quality of health outcomes produced or forgone by health programs or treatments, sharing similarities with CEA.[245.1] Systematic evaluation of health programs is essential for improving public health actions through methods that are useful, feasible, ethical, and accurate, ensuring efficient and equitable resource allocation.[232.1] Effective program evaluation is crucial for understanding the impact of health initiatives. The impact evaluation framework is based on a high-level program theory that emphasizes changes at various levels, including those affecting trainees, graduates, health systems, and communities.[250.1] This framework is supported by a comprehensive list of evaluation indicators that address program outputs, outcomes, and impacts.[250.1] Such a structured approach to evaluation not only facilitates the assessment of health program effectiveness but also encourages reflection on the values that inform public health policy decisions regarding resource allocation.[233.1] By examining these values, organizations can better navigate the complexities of prioritizing public health initiatives, ensuring that resources are allocated in a manner that reflects ethical considerations and community needs.[233.1]In this section:
Public Health InterventionsAntimicrobial ResistanceVaccinesProgram EvaluationRandomized Controlled Trial
Global Health Perspectives
Health Economics in a Global Context
Health economics is pivotal in tackling the challenges faced by healthcare systems worldwide, especially in low- and middle-income countries. It involves the study of how scarce resources are allocated for the care of sickness and the promotion, maintenance, and improvement of health. This includes examining the distribution of healthcare services, their costs and benefits, and health outcomes among individuals and groups in society.[264.1] The field considers various perspectives, such as those of patients, payers, healthcare providers, and society at large, each with specific implications for economic evaluations.[263.1] The broader societal perspective, which includes spillover effects on sectors outside healthcare, highlights the interconnectedness of health economics with other areas.[265.1] Global health economics has evolved into a multidisciplinary science, integrating knowledge from public health, clinical medicine, economics, finance, humanities, political and social sciences, mathematics, statistics, and ethics.[267.1] This approach is crucial for ensuring efficient, equitable, and sustainable healthcare systems, particularly as global challenges like pandemics and climate change arise.[268.1] Health economics provides a framework for informed decision-making regarding medical treatments, healthcare delivery, and health-related policies. It focuses on optimizing resource allocation to improve health outcomes and addresses issues such as rising medical costs and access to care.[271.1] Insights from health economics are essential for navigating global health complexities and achieving better health outcomes for all.[268.1] The role of health economics is increasingly vital in evaluating the economic impact of health interventions and government policies, especially during crises like the COVID-19 pandemic. Research now includes healthcare interventions and broader policies aimed at mitigating disease transmission and addressing national income loss.[272.1] This encompasses health system innovations, models of care, and theoretical issues related to welfare economics and social return on investment.[272.1] A significant challenge remains in balancing healthcare quality with resource constraints, particularly in Global Surgery, where high-quality care is essential.[279.1]Addressing Health Disparities Worldwide
Addressing health disparities worldwide necessitates a comprehensive approach that incorporates health economics into public policy. A prime example is California's equity-focused public health response during the pandemic, which explicitly targeted health disparities by integrating health equity metrics. These metrics enabled the identification and monitoring of at-risk populations, guiding a coordinated response among various stakeholders, including state and local entities.[273.1] The integration of health economics into policy is crucial for balancing healthcare access, quality, and costs. Policies like the Affordable Care Act’s Medicaid expansion have shown positive outcomes, such as reduced mortality rates. However, the mixed effectiveness of models like accountable care organizations (ACOs) highlights the need for continuous evaluation and adaptation of strategies to improve population health.[275.1] Incorporating diverse perspectives into health economics policy is vital for effectively addressing health disparities. Engaging a variety of voices can lead to more effective solutions and improved health outcomes, addressing social determinants of health and ensuring that underserved communities' needs are reflected in health systems.[277.1] Collaborative efforts, such as those by Evaluation Working Groups, demonstrate how experienced evaluators can integrate community perspectives into evaluation practices.[276.1] Cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA) is a valuable tool for evaluating health interventions, especially in resource-limited settings. However, ethical considerations regarding equity and fairness must be prioritized in discussions about healthcare resource allocation. As CEA becomes more prevalent, it is crucial to assess its ethical implications, particularly for marginalized communities.[294.1] Balancing economic evaluations with ethical considerations remains a significant challenge in health policy formulation, requiring a careful approach to ensure interventions are both effective and equitable.In this section:
Supporting Innovation And Research
Evaluating New Treatments and Technologies
The evaluation of new treatments and technologies in health economics is increasingly vital as healthcare systems confront rising costs and evolving disease burdens. Health economics provides frameworks that assess how resources can be optimally utilized to enhance health outcomes, thereby guiding decisions that balance cost-effectiveness with quality of care.[312.1] The emergence of innovative medical technologies necessitates a robust evaluation process to determine their affordability and integration into existing healthcare systems.[312.1] Since the mid-1990s, early-stage health economic modeling has been a crucial tool for technology developers, aiding in strategic decision-making, preliminary market assessments, and identifying potentially successful projects. These insights are essential for developing future trial designs and pricing strategies.[313.1] Real case studies have demonstrated how these models can assess the potential cost-effectiveness of innovations, informing their development and positioning in clinical practice.[313.1] [313.1] Emerging treatments, such as cell and gene therapies (CGTs), present unique challenges to traditional evaluation metrics. Unlike conventional medicines, CGTs are often designed as one-time or short-course therapies that may yield significant long-term health benefits, including disease remission and reduced healthcare resource utilization.[314.1] However, the full extent of these benefits may not be immediately apparent, necessitating evolving evaluation methods to capture the true value of such therapies over time.[314.1] Integrating health economics into public policy is essential for addressing the significant challenges healthcare systems face in balancing access, quality, and costs.[315.1] Establishing and sustaining a long-term relationship between research and policy is crucial for the development of this agenda, allowing for ongoing engagement necessary to inform policy decisions effectively.[322.1] However, much work remains to ensure health economics continues to play a significant role in shaping public policy, as balancing healthcare access, quality, and costs remains a persistent challenge.[322.1] [315.1]Funding and Development of Health Innovations
Funding and development of health innovations are critical components of health economics, particularly in the context of addressing non-communicable diseases (NCDs) and enhancing healthcare access. Health Economics and Outcomes Research (HEOR) plays a significant role in demonstrating the cost-effectiveness of early detection and lifestyle interventions compared to the treatment of advanced diseases, which can encourage governments to invest in preventive health measures.[302.1] Furthermore, health economics has been instrumental in evaluating pharmaceutical innovations, providing essential support for decision-makers in price setting and prioritizing health expenditures.[303.1] Sustainable innovations in health economics can enhance care quality, lower costs, and increase access to healthcare for underserved populations. Research indicates that healthcare organizations can foster successful management and patient satisfaction by emphasizing innovation capability, cost-effectiveness, and social responsibility.[304.1] Collaborations with biomedical and health-services research, as well as partnerships with organizations addressing social determinants of health, are vital for reducing health disparities and supporting the development of new treatments and services.[305.1] The pricing of innovative drugs is a complex issue that balances the need for affordability with the necessity of sustaining innovation. Pharmaceutical companies often justify high drug prices as essential for funding research and development of new therapies that provide substantial benefits to patients.[306.1] In 2020, the European Federation of Pharmaceutical Industries and Associates (EFPIA) proposed novel pricing and payment models aimed at improving patient access to innovative drugs, emphasizing the importance of value in these discussions.[307.1] However, if drug prices exceed the value created for specific indications, payers may implement utilization management programs that restrict access to these products.[308.1] Concerns regarding rising drug prices and spending have prompted significant policy discussions focused on balancing affordability with the need to sustain innovation. Increases in drug prices and drug spending are of concern to health systems worldwide, driving interest in discussions about drug pricing and the necessity of balancing affordability with sustaining innovation.[309.1] These discussions are influenced by value-based systems already in use in some industrialized countries, which highlight the delicate balance between pharmaceutical innovation and patient access.[310.1] Furthermore, public-private partnerships (PPPs) have gained attention as a potential solution to strengthen health systems and foster sustainable innovations. These partnerships can be particularly effective in addressing the social determinants of health for underserved populations, as they leverage the strengths of both sectors to achieve policy goals that may not be met in a purely free market system.[320.1]In this section:
Non-communicable DiseasesOutcomes ResearchEarly DetectionSustainable InnovationsUnderserved Populations
References
[1] Concepts in health economics | PPT - SlideShare — Key concepts in health economics are then explained such as demand, supply, costs, and the production of health. The document outlines areas, principles, and importance of health economics. Various methods of economic evaluation used to assess healthcare interventions are described. Factors affecting healthcare costs and indicators used to
[4] Introduction to Health Economics: Key Concepts and Applications — Health economics helps policymakers, healthcare providers, and patients make informed choices about medical treatments, healthcare delivery, and health-related policies. It provides a framework for analyzing complex healthcare issues, such as rising medical costs, access to care, and the effectiveness of health interventions. Health economics optimizes resource allocation in healthcare systems to improve health outcomes Health economics applies economic principles to healthcare systems, focusing on efficiency, resource allocation, and decision-making in the medical field. The scope of health economics includes cost-effectiveness analysis, health technology assessment, and healthcare financing. Health sector economics examines the financial aspects of healthcare systems, providers, and patients. Economic policies significantly impact public health outcomes and healthcare systems.
[8] Health Economics and Public Policy: Balancing Healthcare Access ... — Health Economics and Public Policy: Balancing Healthcare Access, Quality, and Costs Health Economics and Public Policy: Balancing Healthcare Access, Quality, and Costs Health economics and public policy: Balancing healthcare access, quality, and costs. Health Economics, Public Policy, Healthcare Access, Healthcare Quality, Healthcare Costs, Resource Allocation, Universal Healthcare, Health Equity. Health economics is a critical field that evaluates how healthcare resources are allocated and the resulting outcomes in terms of access, quality, and cost. In countries like the United Kingdom and Canada, universal healthcare systems are designed to provide access to all, but they face challenges in balancing quality and cost. Balancing healthcare access, quality, and costs remains a significant challenge in health economics and public policy.
[9] PDF — Health economics and public policy: Balancing healthcare access, quality, and costs. Journal of Economics and Economic Education Research, 25(S5), 1-3 HEALTH ECONOMICS AND PUBLIC POLICY: BALANCING HEALTHCARE ACCESS, QUALITY, AND COSTS Stephanie Doe, University of Bonn, Germany ABSTRACT Healthcare systems worldwide face significant challenges in balancing access, quality, and costs. Keywords: Health Economics, Public Policy, Healthcare Access, Healthcare Quality, Healthcare Costs, Resource Allocation, Universal Healthcare, Health Equity. INTRODUCTION Health economics is a critical field that evaluates how healthcare resources are allocated and the resulting outcomes in terms of access, quality, and cost. Health economics and public policy: Balancing healthcare access, quality, and costs. CONCLUSION Balancing healthcare access, quality, and costs remains a significant challenge in health economics and public policy. Health economics and public policy: Balancing healthcare access, quality, and costs.
[11] A Practical Guide to Understanding Cost-Effectiveness Analyses — Cost-effectiveness analysis is a way to understand the value of a health care intervention in terms of assessing the money spent to produce beneficial outcomes. Cost-effectiveness analyses are used by various stakeholders for such purposes because health care resources and financing may be scarce, depending on the economy, and certain interventions may be costly to produce such outcomes
[13] Hidden Costs: the ethics of cost-effectiveness analyses for health ... — Cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA) is an increasingly appealing tool for evaluating and comparing health-related interventions in resource-limited settings. The goal is to inform decision-makers regarding the health benefits and associated costs of
[45] Scenario You are writing a paper titled Economics of Healthcare - Studocu — Scenario: You are writing a paper titled: Economics of Healthcare: Past, Present, and Future Payment Trends. Directions: Write a conclusion summarizing the key milestones in healthcare payments, costs, and expectations over time. Explain the economic impact of one of the contemporary factors that will be the most significant going forward.
[46] Foundation - OHE — Analyse the scope, significance, health economics research trends and notable milestones. Explore the foundation and fundamental principles of health economics. Analyse the scope, significance, health economics research trends and notable milestones. ... tracing its evolution through key milestones and pivotal moments across different periods
[47] 10 biggest healthcare milestones in the last 20 years - Science Times — When Congress passed the Health Information Technology for Economic and Clinical Health Act in 2009, medical facilities across the land embarked on a mass paper-shredding mission.
[48] PDF — Lecture 2: Key concepts in health economics This lecture should enable you to:!Describe the concepts of efficiency, opportunity cost and marginal analysis!Understand why these concepts are important in health economics!Appreciate how they underpin 'the market'(as a prelude to lectures 3, 4 and 5)
[49] Public health milestones through the years - World Health Organization ... — Select language Donate Donate Home Health Topics All topics A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Resources Fact sheets Facts in pictures Multimedia Podcasts Publications Questions and answers Tools and toolkits Popular Dengue Endometriosis Excessive heat Herpes Mental disorders Mpox Countries All countries A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Regions Africa Americas Europe Eastern Mediterranean South-East Asia Western Pacific WHO in countries Data by country Country presence Country strengthening Country cooperation strategies Newsroom All news News releases Statements Campaigns Events Feature stories Press conferences Speeches Commentaries Photo library Headlines Emergencies Focus on Cholera Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) Greater Horn of Africa Israel and occupied Palestinian territory Mpox Sudan Ukraine Latest Disease Outbreak News Situation reports Weekly Epidemiological Record WHO in emergencies Surveillance Operations Research Funding Partners Health emergency appeal International Health Regulations Independent Oversight and Advisory Committee Data Data at WHO Data hub Global Health Estimates Mortality Health inequality Dashboards Triple Billion Progress Health Inequality Monitor Delivery for impact COVID-19 dashboard Data collection Classifications SCORE Surveys Civil registration and vital statistics Routine health information systems Harmonized health facility assessment GIS centre for health Reports World Health Statistics UHC global monitoring report About WHO About WHO Partnerships Committees and advisory groups Collaborating centres Technical teams Organizational structure Who we are Our work Activities Initiatives General Programme of Work WHO Academy Funding Investment in WHO WHO Foundation Accountability External audit Financial statements Internal audit and investigations Programme Budget Results reports Governance Governing bodies World Health Assembly Executive Board Member States Portal Public health milestones through the years Since the foundation of the World Health Organization in 1948, the world has experienced public health challenges that have required us all to come together with science, solutions and solidarity. This timeline, published in 2023 on the occasion of WHO’s 75th anniversary, serves as a reminder of some of the most memorable successes and how these have contributed to improved health across the world. These milestone achievements also provide inspiration for us to face the health challenges of the future. Following the mandate established by Member States, WHO begins its first two decades with a strong focus on mass campaigns against tuberculosis, malaria, yaws, syphilis, smallpox and leprosy.
[50] Balancing Equity and Efficiency in the Allocation of Health Resources ... — While the principle of efficiency seeks to maximise the total population health given the resource constraints, the notion of equity concerns fairness in distributing health and healthcare aimed at minimising any differences amongst population groups . Culyer extends this argument by pointing out that ensuring equity in the distribution of health resources must be carried out within the context of maximising the gains (efficiency). 14.Culyer A.J. Efficiency, Equity and Equality in Health and Health Care. 36.Iyer H.S., Flanigan J., Wolf N.G., Schroeder L.F., Horton S., Castro M.C., Rebbeck T.R. Geospatial evaluation of trade-offs between equity in physical access to healthcare and health systems efficiency.
[51] Equity in healthcare resource allocation decision making: A systematic ... — These and other related principles of healthcare resource allocation have had a dramatic effect on health system structures and health outcomes when operationalised through a range of different healthcare policies and resource allocation decision making mechanisms worldwide (Jones et al., 2014, Marmot et al., 2008, Thomas, 1993).
[52] Impact of Epidemiologists on Public Health Policy — Impact of Epidemiological Research on Policy Decisions. Epidemiological research significantly impacts policy decisions in public health. By providing vital data and insights, it influences various aspects of health management, including vaccination programs, disease surveillance, health guidelines, and emergency response plans.
[53] 12.7: The Role of Epidemiology in Scientific Decision-Making and Policy ... — As the pioneers of epidemiology have demonstrated, when rigorously conducted, reported, and communicated, epidemiological studies can result in major health policy changes. Edward Jenner demonstrated that vaccination effectively protects the public from infectious diseases (Riedel, 2005). He operated purely on observational data and then used his observations to experiment with a "volunteer."
[56] Economic epidemiological modelling: A progress report☆ — Abstract Prior to the Covid-19 crisis, the integration of epidemiology and economics that is, economic epidemiology modelling (epi-econ), was relatively limited. The emergence of the Covid-19 crisis has prompted an unprecedented surge in this literature. This paper identifies and develops the main conceptual and modelling challenges involved in the expanding epi-econ stream, with a particular
[57] Challenges of integrating economics into epidemiological analysis of ... — This is why integrating economics into the analysis of epidemiological problems is of first-order importance to predict the effects of epidemics and epidemic policy (referred to as positive analysis), and to evaluate preferred strategies to tackle epidemics (known as normative analysis).
[59] Public vs. Private Healthcare Funding: A Comprehensive Analysis — Economics Countries with well-developed public healthcare systems include the United Kingdom, Canada, and most Nordic countries, where health services are primarily financed through taxes and managed by state institutions. Moreover, publicly funded healthcare systems tend to have lower administrative costs compared to their private counterparts. Nonetheless, the challenge of public healthcare funding lies in its dependency on economic stability and political will. Comparing public and private healthcare funding reveals notable differences in their impact on healthcare delivery and outcomes. Innovations in health technology have the potential to revolutionize both public and private healthcare systems, driving efficiencies and improving patient care. Healthcare financing, whether through public or private means, is fundamental to any health system’s success. Economics Lecture Notes – Economic Policy Economics
[60] How Does Private Finance Affect Public Health Care Systems ... - SSRN — The impact of private finance on publicly funded health care systems depends on how the relationship between public and private finance is structured. This essay first reviews the experience in five nations that exemplify different ways of drawing the public/private boundary to address the particular questions raised by each model.
[63] Interdisciplinary research in public health: the 'why' and the 'how' — Interdisciplinary research provides extensive insight into health inequalities through considering interventions that are no longer exclusively based on the individual and focused on what the health sector alone can do but integrate social, territorial, economic and political perspectives as well as experiential expertise from communities and
[64] The Case for Understanding Interdisciplinary Relationships in Health ... — Another example of interdisciplinary collaboration is accountable care organizations that mandate interdisciplinary relationships in the form of teams consisting of a primary care physician, nursing staff, and specialists who care for patients.10,11 This kind of health care collaboration has been suggested as an effective option for lowering the cost of patient care and improving patient outcomes.10 Kaufman et al reviewed 42 articles that assessed the effect of accountable care organizations on health care utilization, processes of care, and outcomes.12 The articles included in the review were 24 Medicare studies, 5 Medicaid studies, and 13 private payer studies.
[66] Full article: Challenges in health economics research: insights from ... — 2. Discussion Health economics research encompasses various interconnected areas, each presenting unique challenges. One key area is the analysis of healthcare financing and policy, which involves understanding the complexities of funding and policy decisions in healthcare systems 5,6. This analysis is particularly challenging due to the intricate task of efficiently allocating limited
[67] Editorial: Insights in health economics: 2021 - PMC — An array of contributing institutions were encouraged to identify the greatest challenges in the inter-disciplinary developments at the cross-sections of health economics, policy, global, and public health, pandemic health emergencies, quality of life, and mainstream market economics.
[97] Big data-driven public health policy making: Potential for the ... — The use of healthcare data analytics is anticipated to play a significant role in future public health policy formulation. Therefore, this study examines how big data analytics (BDA) may be methodically incorporated into various phases of the health policy cycle for fact-based and precise health policy decision-making.
[98] Why policymakers should care about "big data" in healthcare — Smart health data and methodologies can also be a powerful tool for increasing the precision of public health policy and decision-making at a city or district level. All of these examples have the potential to significantly impact healthcare costs. ... Developing public policy to advance the use of big data in health care. Health Affairs, 33 (9
[99] Big data-driven public health policy making: Potential for the ... — Several previous studies used evidence-based methods and verified their results, such as predictive models, in big data analytics (BDA) for developing public health policy. In public health policy decision-making, big data analytics (BDA) may be useful for making real-time accurate decision. Evidence-based public health policy models development and evaluation using big data analytics and Web technologies. 33.Dritsakis G., Kikidis D., Koloutsou N., Murdin L., Bibas A., Ploumidou K., Laplante-Lévesque A., Pontoppidan N.H., Bamiou D.E. Clinical validation of a public health policy-making platform for hearing loss (EVOTION): protocol for a big data study. 80.Saunders G.H., Christensen J.H., Gutenberg J., Pontoppidan N.H., Smith A., Spanoudakis G., Bamiou D.E. Application of big data to support evidence-based public health policy decision-making for hearing.
[100] Benefits and challenges of Big Data in healthcare: an overview of the ... — In this context, the data sharing approach can improve outcomes for patients and evidence-based healthcare decision making as reported during the workshop on ‘Digitalisation and Big Data: implications for the health sector’, held on 19 June 2018 at the European Parliament.8 A systematic review published in 2016 from the European Commission identified at that time 10 priority projects on Big Data implemented in Europe that fall in the four macro sectors described above and are aimed to support the sustainability of health systems by addressing the improvement of the quality and effectiveness of treatment, fighting chronic disease and supporting healthy lifestyles.9 Some of these projects focussed on gathering a very wide range of data types, from GP records, hospitalizations, drug prescription and laboratory and radiology analyses in order to create comprehensive national data warehouses.
[103] An Introduction to the Main Types of Economic Evaluations Used for ... — Specifically, we provide an up-to-date comprehensive introduction to the main principles underlining the most common economic evaluation methods used in the context of informing resource allocation decisions in global health [namely cost-effectiveness/cost-utility analyses and cost-benefit analyses (6)] (Table 1), outlining their key features, differences, advantages and limitations. | Cost-utility analysis | Cost-utility analysis (a specific type of cost-effectiveness analysis) is a form of comparative economic analysis that evaluates two or more policy alternatives in terms of their relative costs and outcomes, where the outcomes are expressed by a generic measure of health status that considers both the effect on mortality and morbidity (e.g., quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs) and disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs)).
[124] May 7: Advanced Decision Modeling for Health Economic Evaluations - In ... — During this course, the key aspects and new developments of decision modeling for economic analysis are considered. In particular, how the limitations of Markov models can be overcome is explored using various modelling techniques including different options for introducing time-dependency into state transition models.
[125] Types of Health Economics Models - Science Times — In the future, health economics modeling will evolve under the influence of new technologies, integration of real-world data, and advances in modeling techniques.
[128] MSR110 The Use of Artificial Intelligence for the Development of Health ... — Health economic models (HEMs) are used to inform decision-making in healthcare, including resource allocation and policy development. However, the construction and validation of these models can be time-consuming and resource-intensive. Artificial intelligence (AI) has the potential to revolutionize the development of health economic models. AI techniques, such as machine learning and natural
[129] (PDF) Guidance on the use of complex systems models for economic ... — Economic evaluation using modeling techniques can es timate the value of public health investments, e xploring incremental and population effects of changes in policies (Squires & Bo yd, 2019 ).
[130] Why We Need Health-Informed Policies and Decision-Making — In summary, growing scientific evidence of the links between health and many economic, social, and planning factors makes it imperative to evaluate the health implications of policies, programs, projects, and plans that affect the root causes. Health-informed decision-making is sorely needed. The systematic assessment of the health consequences
[134] Introduction to Health Economics: Key Concepts and Applications — Health economics helps policymakers, healthcare providers, and patients make informed choices about medical treatments, healthcare delivery, and health-related policies. It provides a framework for analyzing complex healthcare issues, such as rising medical costs, access to care, and the effectiveness of health interventions. Health economics optimizes resource allocation in healthcare systems to improve health outcomes Health economics applies economic principles to healthcare systems, focusing on efficiency, resource allocation, and decision-making in the medical field. The scope of health economics includes cost-effectiveness analysis, health technology assessment, and healthcare financing. Health sector economics examines the financial aspects of healthcare systems, providers, and patients. Economic policies significantly impact public health outcomes and healthcare systems.
[139] Economics and ethics in health care - Journal of Medical Ethics — Economics and ethics in health care | Journal of Medical Ethics Log in using your username and password Log in using your username and password This editorial provides a review of the current ways in which health economics is impacting on policy and reviews some of the key ethical and value-judgmental issues that commonly arise in and as a result of the work of economists. It also briefly highlights the contributions of the authors of this special issue of the journal, all of which illustrate how economists have approached ethical issues in health service policy (both in its financing and its delivery), and some of which explore the major methodological matters that arise and go on to discuss their potential as sources of conflict or harmony with other approaches to the same questions. Log in using your username and password Log in using your username and password
[140] PDF — One exception is the use of cost-effectiveness evidence by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices to inform national recommendations on immunization policy.14 However, a growing concern about inefficient health care spending has led to the incorporation of value (typically measured by ICERs using QALY as the measure of health gain) into organizations’ health care decisions and practice guidelines.15,16 For example, the Institute for Clinical and Economic Review (ironically, with the moniker ICER), a US-based nonprofit organization, applies systematic and evidence-based approaches—including CEAs—to assess the value of various health technologies.7 Medical professional societies and other organizations have also developed practice guidelines incorporating value measured by ICERs, for example.17 Nevertheless, the use of cost-effectiveness evidence to inform health care decisions faces challenges and opposition from policymakers, the drug industry, and patient advocates.
[141] Challenges and Limitations in Distributional Cost-Effectiveness ... — In particular, we found problems with data availability, the relative unfamiliarity of this analysis among policymakers, and challenges in estimating differences among socioeconomic groups. Keywords: equity, distributional cost-effectiveness analysis, health technology assessment. 1. Introduction
[142] How Does Cost-Effectiveness Analysis Inform Health Care Decisions ... — Citation PDF Altmetric Abstract Cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA) provides a formal assessment of trade-offs involving benefits, harms, and costs inherent in alternative options. CEA has been increasingly used to inform public and private organizations’ reimbursement decisions, benefit designs, and price negotiations worldwide. This article briefly reviews the history of CEA in the United States, highlights advances in practice guidelines, and discusses CEA’s ethical challenges. Answers to these questions require careful examination of potential trade-offs involving benefits, harms, and costs associated with policies or health interventions to determine the optimal choice.1 One approach to aid such decisions is to conduct a cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA) that explicitly quantifies the relative costs and benefits of alternative interventions.2, 3 It aims to illuminate the potential trade-offs and inform discussions of whether the additional resources demanded by an intervention (over an alternative) are worth the additional gain in health produced by it.4 A CEA expresses this trade-off using a metric called the incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER).5 The ICER can be regarded as a “price” for an additional unit of health gained through an intervention.
[143] Challenges of calculating cost-effectiveness thresholds — Health systems around the globe use cost-effectiveness analysis to support health funding decisions. Cost-effectiveness analysis compares benefits associated with new technologies with benefits necessarily forsaken when resources are displaced to pay for the new technologies. Systems aiming to improve the health of their populations but facing a budget constraint should use cost-effectiveness
[144] Distributional Cost-Effectiveness Analysis of Health Technologies: Data ... — Governments and health technology assessment agencies are putting greater focus on and efforts in understanding and addressing health inequities. Cost-effectiveness analyses are used to evaluate the costs and health gains of different interventions to inform the decision-making process on funding of new treatments. Distributional cost-effectiveness analysis (DCEA) is an extension of cost
[154] What are Health Disparities? - nimhd.nih.gov — A health disparity is a largely preventable health difference that adversely affects populations who experience greater challenges to optimal health and are closely linked with intergenerational social, economic, and/or environmental disadvantage – primarily based on identification as a racial and ethnic minority and/or by low socioeconomic status (SES) in society. How Do Scientists Select an Appropriate Reference Population/Group in Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities Research*? The reference population in U.S. health disparities research has often utilized the racial majority group (i.e., White persons) as the reference group. The selected reference group in health disparities research must be chiefly guided by the scientific questions and potential for generalizable results. Similar reference group considerations apply to health disparities research focused on low socioeconomic status groups, underserved rural communities, sexual minority groups, and people with disabilities.
[155] The Role of Health Policy in Improving Health Outcomes and Health ... — Policy focused on improving access to care through insurance coverage, such as the Affordable Care Act’s Medicaid expansion, has led to better health and reduced mortality. Here, the evidence is somewhat more mixed; accountable care organizations (ACOs) and bundled payment programs have failed to have much effect on patient outcomes (48-55), but they have improved emphasis on prevention and population health and are broadly considered to be an important mechanism by which to advance further goals related to quality and outcomes. [DOI] [PubMed] [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?journal=Health%20Affairs%20(Millwood&title=At%20federally%20funded%20health%20centers,%20Medicaid%20expansion%20was%20associated%20with%20improved%20quality%20of%20care&author=MB%20Cole&author=O%20Galarraga&author=IB%20Wilson&author=B%20Wright&author=AN%20Trivedi&volume=36&issue=1&publication_year=2017&pages=40-8&pmid=28069845&doi=10.1377/hlthaff.2016.0804&)] [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?journal=Health%20Affairs%20(Millwood&title=Medicaid%20expansion%20and%20outpatient%20cardiovascular%20care%20use%20among%20low-income%20nonelderly%20adults,%202012%E2%80%9315&author=SAM%20Khatana&author=L%20Yang&author=LA%20Eberly&volume=42&issue=11&publication_year=2023&pages=1586-94&pmid=37931196&doi=10.1377/hlthaff.2023.00512&)] [DOI] [PubMed] [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?journal=Health%20Affairs%20(Millwood&title=The%20ACA%20Medicaid%20expansion%20and%20perinatal%20insurance,%20health%20care%20use,%20and%20health%20outcomes:%20a%20systematic%20review&author=M%20Bellerose&author=L%20Collin&author=JR%20Daw&volume=41&issue=1&publication_year=2022&pages=60-8&pmid=34982621&doi=10.1377/hlthaff.2021.01150&)] [DOI] [PubMed] [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?journal=Health%20Affairs%20(Millwood&title=Lack%20of%20access%20to%20specialists%20associated%20with%20mortality%20and%20preventable%20hospitalizations%20of%20rural%20Medicare%20beneficiaries&author=KJ%20Johnston&author=H%20Wen&author=KE%20Joynt%20Maddox&volume=38&issue=12&publication_year=2019&pages=1993-2002&pmid=31794307&doi=10.1377/hlthaff.2019.00838&)]
[163] Challenges of Health Technology Assessment in Pluralistic Healthcare ... — Health technology assessment (HTA) has been growing in use over the past 40 years, especially in its impact on decisions regarding the reimbursement, adoption, and use of new drugs, devices, and procedures. In countries or jurisdictions with "pluralistic" healthcare systems, there are multiple payers or sectors, each of which could potentially benefit from HTA. Nevertheless, a single HTA
[181] Navigating Budget Constraints: Delivering Exceptional Patient Care in ... — Navigating budget constraints in healthcare requires a strategic approach that prioritizes efficiency, innovation, and collaboration. By leveraging technology, optimizing resource allocation, and fostering a culture of continuous improvement, healthcare organizations can maintain high standards of patient care despite financial limitations.
[182] Healthcare & Hospital Budgeting Guide for 2024 - NetSuite — Strategies emphasizing preemptive care can help reduce the impact of community health problems on a hospital's budget when outbreaks and other widespread health issues occur. For example, getting ahead of the flu early, by promoting an annual vaccine campaign, can reduce the number of patients needing hospital beds.
[183] Healthcare and Hospital Budgeting: A Complete Guide — A healthcare operational budget allows hospitals and health systems to monitor and balance revenues and expenses. Capital budgeting in healthcare is the process of allocating funding to the purchase of durable goods, such as beds, equipment, or improvements to buildings or infrastructure. A hospital capital budget is important because the
[185] Setting priorities in health care organizations: criteria, processes ... — Priorities must be set among competing opportunities because demand for health care exceeds available resources. Board members and senior administrators are looking for practical ways to improve how they set priorities under resource constraints. ... Vertical equity in health care resource allocation. Health Care Analysis. 2000, 8: 203-215. 10.
[186] Describing practices of priority setting and resource allocation in ... — The present work aimed to describe existing practices of priority setting and resource allocation (PSRA) within the context of publicly funded health care systems of high-income countries and inform areas for further improvement and research. Results We found evidence that resource allocation is still largely carried out based on historical patterns and through ad hoc decisions, despite the widely held understanding that decisions should be based on multiple explicit criteria. Conclusions Efforts to establish formal and explicit processes and rationales for decision-making in priority setting and resource allocation have been still rare outside the HTA realm. Having this ongoing phenomenon in mind, we sought to investigate the practices of decision making in PSRA in health care systems in high-income countries.
[187] Budget-Impact Analysis - Health Economics - iResearchNet — Although the primary purpose of a budget-impact model is to estimate the annual impact on a health plan budget after a new intervention is reimbursed for the health plan's covered population, a budget-impact models may also generate estimates of the associated changes in population health outcomes during the same time period.
[188] The impact of healthcare spending on health outcomes: A meta ... - PubMed — While numerous studies assess the impact of healthcare spending on health outcomes, typically reporting multiple estimates of the elasticity of health outcomes (most often measured by a mortality rate or life expectancy) with respect to healthcare spending, the extent to which study attributes influ …
[222] Health Economics and Policy Evaluation - University of Oxford — Policy evaluation in the healthcare sector involves assessing the effectiveness, efficiency, and equity of healthcare policies and programs. Our researchers conduct comprehensive evaluations to identify the impact of healthcare interventions, inform evidence-based decision-making, and improve health system outcomes.
[223] Identifying Options of Best Value: Use of Economic Evaluation in Public ... — US CDC has used economic evaluation in making key program and policy decisions, most notably beginning in early immunization policy. In 1995, US CDC created the CDC Steven M. Teutsch Prevention Effectiveness Fellowship, a two-year postdoctoral training program in health economics to build agency expertise in economic evaluation.
[224] Economic Evaluation | POLARIS | CDC — Economic Evaluation | POLARIS | CDC About Office of Policy, Performance, and Evaluation | About CDC Public-Private Partnerships | About CDC's 6|18 Initiative About POLARIS Thinking in Systems CDC Policy Process Policy Resources and Trainings Economic Evaluation Health Topics View All Public health professionals can use economic evaluation to identify, measure, value, and compare the costs and consequences of different public health interventions. CDC Introduction to Economic Evaluation - This course provides a broad overview of economic evaluation methods with illustrative examples from public health. CDC Public Health Economics and Tools - This CDC webpage provides economic evaluation tools and trainings created by CDC and its partners POLARIS; About Office of Policy, Performance, and Evaluation; About CDC's 6|18 Initiative
[227] Hidden Costs: the ethics of cost-effectiveness analyses for health ... — Hidden Costs: the ethics of cost-effectiveness analyses for health interventions in resource-limited settings - PMC Cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA) is an increasingly appealing tool for evaluating and comparing health-related interventions in resource-limited settings. We then evaluate contextual features unique to resource-limited settings including the universality of health state utility or disability estimates and the challenge of establishing cost-effectiveness thresholds in light of economic uncertainty and given the role of external donors. As CEA studies gain traction in driving resource-allocation and priority setting in resource-limited settings, a thorough evaluation of the ethical implications of how these model outcomes are interpreted is warranted (Jamison, Breman, ARMeasham, et al., 2006; Making choices in health: WHO Guide to Cost-effectiveness Analysis, 2003; WHO, 2005).
[228] Cost-Effectiveness Analysis | POLARIS | CDC — Cost-Effectiveness Analysis | POLARIS | CDC About POLARIS Thinking in Systems CDC Policy Process Policy Resources and Trainings Economic Evaluation Health Topics View All Cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA) is a way to examine both the costs and health outcomes of one or more interventions. CEA provides information on health and cost impacts of an intervention compared to an alternative intervention (or the status quo). A cost-effectiveness ratio is the net cost divided by changes in health outcomes. CEA can be useful in comparing the health and cost impacts of different interventions affecting the same health outcome. For example, a decision maker might find it useful to know if an intervention is cost saving, and if not how much more would it cost to implement it compared to a less effective intervention.
[232] Prioritisation processes for programme implementation and evaluation in ... — Keywords: health priorities, resource allocation, decision making, decision support techniques, program evaluation (MeSH) 1. Introduction. Programme evaluation is an essential and systematic activity for improving public health actions through useful, feasible, ethical, and accurate methods . Finite budgets mean that there is a need to
[233] Resource Allocation and Priority Setting - Public Health Ethics: Cases ... — Resource Allocation and Priority Setting - Public Health Ethics: Cases Spanning the Globe - NCBI Bookshelf Resource Allocation in Public Health The cases in this chapter that discuss resource allocation force us to contemplate decisions about priorities in public health as opposed to the more frequently discussed medical issues about health care priorities. Variability in the frameworks used to allocate public health resources illustrates the importance of reflecting upon the values that undergird policy decisions and individual practices, like critical care triage. Resource Allocation in Public Health Resource Allocation and Priority Setting - Public Health Ethics: Cases Spanning ... Resource Allocation and Priority Setting - Public Health Ethics: Cases Spanning the Globe
[235] Framework for program evaluation in public health - PubMed — Effective program evaluation is a systematic way to improve and account for public health actions by involving procedures that are useful, feasible, ethical, and accurate. The framework guides public health professionals in their use of program evaluation.
[236] CDC Approach to Program Evaluation — Program evaluation allows you to determine how effective and efficient your programs, policies, and/or organizations are in reaching their outcomes. Collecting and analyzing data regularly and consistently is necessary for effective program evaluation. Program evaluation is crucial to inform decisions, act on findings, and drive continuous program improvement.
[238] Toward economic evaluation of the value of vaccines and other health ... — Abstract. We discuss the need to make economic evaluations of vaccines antimicrobial resistance (AMR)-sensitive and ways to do so. Such AMR-sensitive evaluations can play a role in value-for-money comparisons of different vaccines within a national immunization program, or in comparisons of vaccine-centric and non-vaccine-centric technologies within an anti-AMR program.
[240] Economic evaluations of immunization programs as an indispensable tool ... — A recent study also observed that immunization may reduce households' catastrophic financial burden . When the WHO established the Expanded Programme on Immunization (EPI, now the Essential Programme on Immunization) in 1974, it included vaccines against six childhood vaccine-preventable diseases (diphtheria, pertussis, tetanus, poliomyelitis
[245] Cost-utility analysis | Methods for the Economic Evaluation of Health ... — Cost-utility analysis (CUA) is a form of evaluation that focuses particular attention on the quality of the health outcome produced or forgone by health programmes or treatments. It has many similarities to cost-effectiveness analysis {CEA), and thus all the points discussed in Chapter 4 on cost analysis and many of those discussed in Chapter 5
[246] Cost-Utility Analysis - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics — Cost-Effectiveness Analysis (CEA), also known as Cost-Utility Analysis (CUA) in health economics (Robinson, 1993), is a form of Cost-Benefit Analysis that focuses on a single, non-monetized effect or outcome which is compared to the costs of different courses of action (Browne and Ryan, 2011). In this way, decision-makers are informed about
[247] An Introduction to the Main Types of Economic Evaluations Used for ... — Specifically, we provide an up-to-date comprehensive introduction to the main principles underlining the most common economic evaluation methods used in the context of informing resource allocation decisions in global health [namely cost-effectiveness/cost-utility analyses and cost-benefit analyses (6)] (Table 1), outlining their key features, differences, advantages and limitations. | Cost-utility analysis | Cost-utility analysis (a specific type of cost-effectiveness analysis) is a form of comparative economic analysis that evaluates two or more policy alternatives in terms of their relative costs and outcomes, where the outcomes are expressed by a generic measure of health status that considers both the effect on mortality and morbidity (e.g., quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs) and disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs)).
[248] A review of cost-effectiveness analysis: From theory to clinical ... — Keywords: bootstrapping and health policy, cost-effectiveness analysis, cost-utility analysis, health economics, QALY In this setting, the cost-effectiveness analysis arises as a worthy technical tool for decision-making, not only for authorities of health care insurers, but also to help doctors in clinical practice. Depending on available cost and effectiveness data, economic health assessment can be estimated in 2 ways. | Cost-utility (CUA) | CUA costs are measured in monetary units, and outcomes in Quality Adjusted Life Years (QALY) or years of disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) | QALY is one of the most commonly used methods in economic evaluation, because it aggregates, for example, data of quality and quantity of life; besides this, it is possible to compare different interventions.
[249] Cost-Effectiveness Analysis and Decision Modelling: A Tutorial for ... — We argue that application of a decision model allows computation of health benefits in terms of utility-based measure such as a quality-adjusted life year or disability-adjusted life year which is preferred for a CEA, measure distal costs and consequences which are much more downstream to the application of intervention, allows comparison with multiple intervention and comparators, and provides opportunity of making use of evidence from multiple sources rather than a single RCT which may have limited generalizability. Abbreviations: BCLC, Barcelona Clinic Liver Cancer; BSC, Best Supportive Care; CAD, Coronary Artery Disease; CEA, Cost-Effectiveness Analysis; DALY, Disability Adjusted Life Year; EE, Economic Evaluation; HCC, Hepatocellular Carcinoma; HCV, Hepatitis C Virus; Hib, Hemophilus Influenza; HPV, Human Papillomavirus; ICER, Incremental Cost-Effectiveness Ratio; PD, Progressive Disease; PFS, Progression-Free State; QALY, Quality Adjusted Life Year; RCT, Randomized controlled trial; SNCU, Special Newborn Care Unit
[250] Priority indicators for evaluating the impact of ... - BMC Public Health — The impact evaluation framework follows a high-level program theory focusing on change at the trainee, graduate, health system and community levels (Fig. 1). A critical companion to this framework is a comprehensive list of evaluation indicators covering program outputs, outcomes, and impacts.
[263] An overview of the perspectives used in health economic evaluations — This article addresses this gap by summarising the main types of perspectives commonly found in the literature to a broad audience (namely the patient, payer, health care providers, healthcare sector, health system, and societal perspectives), providing their most established definitions and outlining the corresponding implications of their
[264] Health Economics: A Critical and Global Analysis - Academia.edu — Health economics is the study of how scarce resources are allocated among alternative uses for the care of sickness and the promotion, maintenance, and improvement of health, including the study of how health care and health-related services, their costs and benefits, and health itself are distributed among individuals and groups in society.
[265] An overview of the perspectives used in health economic evaluations — Overview of the different perspectives and the variation of included costs within economic evaluations. Y: Included; N: Not included; * The limited societal perspective excludes spillover impacts affecting sectors other than health care whereas the (non-limited) societal perspective includes the spillover impacts on at least one non-health care sector.
[267] Global health economics: A complex field with few unequivocal answers — The field of global health economics has developed into a branch of science where knowledge about public health, clinical medicine, economics and finance, humanities, political and social sciences, mathematics and statistics, and finally ethics, are all interwoven in a multidisciplinary manner.
[268] Global Health Economics: Challenges and Cooperation — The insights gained from this exploration are vital for ensuring that healthcare systems are efficient, equitable, and sustainable. As we navigate the complexities of global health economics, it becomes evident that collaboration and shared knowledge are key to overcoming the challenges and achieving better health outcomes for all. Challenges
[271] Introduction to Health Economics: Key Concepts and Applications — Health economics helps policymakers, healthcare providers, and patients make informed choices about medical treatments, healthcare delivery, and health-related policies. It provides a framework for analyzing complex healthcare issues, such as rising medical costs, access to care, and the effectiveness of health interventions. Health economics optimizes resource allocation in healthcare systems to improve health outcomes Health economics applies economic principles to healthcare systems, focusing on efficiency, resource allocation, and decision-making in the medical field. The scope of health economics includes cost-effectiveness analysis, health technology assessment, and healthcare financing. Health sector economics examines the financial aspects of healthcare systems, providers, and patients. Economic policies significantly impact public health outcomes and healthcare systems.
[272] The economics of the COVID-19 pandemic: economic evaluation of ... — The aim is to analyze economic evaluations and methodologies assessing COVID-19 government policies suppressing or mitigating transmission, reducing disease, and impacting national income loss; health system innovations and models of care. Given the scope of health economics literature is expanding to evaluate value beyond healthcare interventions, such as other government policies, the research also analyses theoretical issues concerning welfare economics, SWF, social return on investment (SROI), WHO’s pandemic economic risk framework for social and movement measures, and MCDA. The research aimed to analyze economic evaluations and methodologies assessing COVID-19 interventions and government policies to suppress or mitigate transmission, reduce disease, and impacting on national income loss; health system innovations and models of care.
[273] The integration of health equity into policy to reduce disparities ... — Building upon earlier publications on California’s equity-focused approach and policy [38–40], our objectives are to describe (i) how California explicitly integrated measures associated with health disparities into a public health response through the pandemic, both before and after vaccines became available, (ii) how the use of health equity metrics (i.e., approaches to quantify population-level outcomes with a health equity lens) aided in identifying and monitoring areas at-risk of suffering poor public health outcomes, and (iii) how these metrics offered a quantitative approach and a common language for shaping a public health response across a variety of stakeholders at the state, region, county, city, and community levels.
[275] The Role of Health Policy in Improving Health Outcomes and Health ... — Policy focused on improving access to care through insurance coverage, such as the Affordable Care Act’s Medicaid expansion, has led to better health and reduced mortality. Here, the evidence is somewhat more mixed; accountable care organizations (ACOs) and bundled payment programs have failed to have much effect on patient outcomes (48-55), but they have improved emphasis on prevention and population health and are broadly considered to be an important mechanism by which to advance further goals related to quality and outcomes. [DOI] [PubMed] [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?journal=Health%20Affairs%20(Millwood&title=At%20federally%20funded%20health%20centers,%20Medicaid%20expansion%20was%20associated%20with%20improved%20quality%20of%20care&author=MB%20Cole&author=O%20Galarraga&author=IB%20Wilson&author=B%20Wright&author=AN%20Trivedi&volume=36&issue=1&publication_year=2017&pages=40-8&pmid=28069845&doi=10.1377/hlthaff.2016.0804&)] [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?journal=Health%20Affairs%20(Millwood&title=Medicaid%20expansion%20and%20outpatient%20cardiovascular%20care%20use%20among%20low-income%20nonelderly%20adults,%202012%E2%80%9315&author=SAM%20Khatana&author=L%20Yang&author=LA%20Eberly&volume=42&issue=11&publication_year=2023&pages=1586-94&pmid=37931196&doi=10.1377/hlthaff.2023.00512&)] [DOI] [PubMed] [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?journal=Health%20Affairs%20(Millwood&title=The%20ACA%20Medicaid%20expansion%20and%20perinatal%20insurance,%20health%20care%20use,%20and%20health%20outcomes:%20a%20systematic%20review&author=M%20Bellerose&author=L%20Collin&author=JR%20Daw&volume=41&issue=1&publication_year=2022&pages=60-8&pmid=34982621&doi=10.1377/hlthaff.2021.01150&)] [DOI] [PubMed] [[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?journal=Health%20Affairs%20(Millwood&title=Lack%20of%20access%20to%20specialists%20associated%20with%20mortality%20and%20preventable%20hospitalizations%20of%20rural%20Medicare%20beneficiaries&author=KJ%20Johnston&author=H%20Wen&author=KE%20Joynt%20Maddox&volume=38&issue=12&publication_year=2019&pages=1993-2002&pmid=31794307&doi=10.1377/hlthaff.2019.00838&)]
[276] Shared Goals, Divergent Strategies: Evaluating Work With Diverse ... — Hot Tip: Collaborate to build capacity and amplify diverse voices. Collaborating across Centers through an Evaluation Working Group provides an example of how young and more experienced evaluators can learn from each other while also incorporating the diverse perspectives of their local communities into their activities and evaluation practice.
[277] How diversity can change and rebuild trust in healthcare — Evidence suggests diverse voices can lead to more effective solutions and improved health outcomes. To enact meaningful change in health equity, it is not only crucial to address factors such as social determinants of health and access to healthcare but to better reflect underserved communities in the systems working to improve their health.
[279] Overcoming the barriers between resource constraints and healthcare quality — Healthcare quality and resource constraints are often mutually exclusive, and this is a significant challenge in the field of Global Surgery which needs to be addressed urgently so that patients receive the high-quality care that need and deserve.
[294] Ethical issues in cost-effectiveness analysis - ScienceDirect — Cost-effectiveness analysis provides important information about the economic efficiency of health-related programs that can help health care decision makers choose between competing alternatives. Ethical concerns (such as equity and other issues of fairness) are critical to any discussion of health care resource allocation, as are the
[302] THE ROLE OF HEALTH ECONOMICS AND OUTCOMES RESEARCH - HEOR | Cliniminds — In the case of NCDs, HEOR can demonstrate how early detection and lifestyle interventions are more cost-effective than treating advanced diseases, prompting governments to invest in preventive health measures. 5. Supporting Innovation. HEOR also supports innovation in healthcare by evaluating new technologies, drugs, and therapies.
[303] Innovation as a Major Research Issue in Health Economics - JSTOR — health economics has been particularly active in the evaluation of pharmaceu-tical innovations, as a support for deci-sion makers. Such analyses may be used in two perspectives: price setting, and health expenditures priority setting once prices are set. Inside thisfield of research, the major innovation of the past 20 years has been the
[304] Exploring sustainable healthcare: Innovations in health economics ... — Overall, sustainable innovations in health economics, social policy, and management have the potential to enhance care quality, lower costs, and increase access to healthcare for underserved populations. In conclusion, the bootstrapping analysis's findings confirm the suggested model and show that social responsibility, cost-effectiveness, and innovation capability play significant roles in fostering successful management and patient satisfaction in the healthcare sector. Overall, our research indicates that healthcare organizations may support sustainable healthcare practices by emphasizing their ability for innovation, cost-effectiveness, effective management, social responsibility, and stakeholder engagement. Healthcare organizations can enhance patient outcomes, lower healthcare costs, and advance sustainability in the healthcare sector by prioritizing sustainable innovations, fostering effective management, emphasizing social responsibility, investing in technology, encouraging stakeholder collaboration, and prioritizing sustainability reporting and transparency.
[305] PDF — • Collaborate with the biomedical and health-services research and the health economics ecosystem to support equity in development and valuation of new and innovative treatments and services; and • Partner with organizations that have a track record in addressing social determinants of health to reduce health disparities.
[306] Value For Money - High Drug Prices Versus Patient Access — 1. Price Determination: What's the right price? Pharmaceutical companies often justify high drug prices as necessary to support research and development (R&D) of innovative treatments. We can and should expect to pay a high price for truly innovative therapies that bring substantial benefits to patients suffering from devastating diseases.
[307] Unraveling elements of value-based pricing from a pharmaceutical ... — In 2020, the EFPIA (European Federation of Pharmaceutical Industries and Associates) has presented novel pricing and payment models to improve patient access to innovative drugs (EFPIA, 2020). Five principles were set to shape and guide discussions on these pricing models, whereas one of them was the value principle; a high quality
[308] The Economics of Drug Development: Pricing and Innovation in a Changing ... — In most cases, a firm's optimal price is limited by the value a product creates, because an insurer must pass along the cost to patients via premiums. 7 If pharmaceutical manufacturers set a high price relative to the value created for a specific indication, payers will implement utilization management programs that limit access to the product
[309] Drug Pricing Throughout the Product Lifecycle: A Work in Progress — Increases in drug prices and drug spending are of concern to health systems worldwide. This has naturally driven policy interest and discussion around drug pricing and the need to balance affordability with sustaining innovation. Some of these discussions are being shaped by the value-based systems already in use in some industrialized countries. There are also ongoing policy discussions about
[310] Pharmaceuticals and Healthcare Economics: Pricing and Access — Balancing Innovation and Access. Balancing pharmaceutical innovation with access is a delicate yet critical endeavor. On one hand, innovation drives the discovery of new drugs, leading to better health outcomes and extended lives. On the other hand, high drug prices can restrict access, undermining the very purpose of these innovations.
[312] PDF — For commercial reuse, contact reprints@pulsus.com J Health Pol Manage Vol 7 No 3 June 2024 1 OPINION Health economics: Understanding its role, impact, and future challenges Gerng J Zhou INTRODUCTION he health economics contributes significantly to the functioning of healthcare systems by providing frameworks for assessing how resources can be best utilized to improve health outcomes. As healthcare systems worldwide face increasing pressures from rising costs, aging populations, and evolving disease burdens, health economics plays a crucial role in guiding decisions that balance cost-effectiveness with quality of care. As medical technologies continue to advance, health economics will play an increasingly important role in determining their affordability and integration into healthcare systems.
[313] Expanding the Role of Early Health Economic Modelling in Evaluation of ... — The concept of early-stage health economic modelling has been around since the mid-nineties,1-4 and its potential role to support technology developers decisions have been broadly explored in a number of reviews.5-8 For example Hartz and colleagues argue that early health economic modelling may support technology developers by providing relevant insights on strategic R&D decision-making, pre-clinical preliminary market assessments, go/no-go decisions and identification of potentially successful projects, development of future trial design, assessment of future reimbursement and pricing scenarios and price determination.6 The work by Grutters et al,9 recently published in IJHPM, nicely reports on real case studies providing interesting insights on how early health economic models have been actually implemented and how they have been used to assess the potential cost-effectiveness and inform further development, implementation and positioning of innovations in clinical practice.
[314] Evolving Concept of Value in Health Economics and Outcomes Research ... — Evolving Concept of Value in Health Economics and Outcomes Research: Emerging Tools for Innovation and Access to Cell and Gene Therapies for Rare Diseases - ScienceDirect Evolving Concept of Value in Health Economics and Outcomes Research: Emerging Tools for Innovation and Access to Cell and Gene Therapies for Rare Diseases Unlike conventional medicines, CGTs are commonly designed as one-time or short-course therapies that provide large health gains, including possible disease remission, long-term disease modification, or a potential cure.21 The full magnitude of these benefits, however, may not be apparent in a trial context but rather are only revealed over time by means of reducing (or even eliminating the need for) subsequent treatments and health care resource utilization, improving HRQoL and productivity, and extending survival.22,23 Because of these unique characteristics, conventional metrics are generally insufficient to inform the true value of CGTs. This has challenged the suitability of traditional methods used by regulatory bodies, health technology assessment (HTA) agencies, and third-party payers.
[315] PDF — Health economics and public policy: Balancing healthcare access, quality, and costs. Journal of Economics and Economic Education Research, 25(S5), 1-3 HEALTH ECONOMICS AND PUBLIC POLICY: BALANCING HEALTHCARE ACCESS, QUALITY, AND COSTS Stephanie Doe, University of Bonn, Germany ABSTRACT Healthcare systems worldwide face significant challenges in balancing access, quality, and costs. Keywords: Health Economics, Public Policy, Healthcare Access, Healthcare Quality, Healthcare Costs, Resource Allocation, Universal Healthcare, Health Equity. INTRODUCTION Health economics is a critical field that evaluates how healthcare resources are allocated and the resulting outcomes in terms of access, quality, and cost. Health economics and public policy: Balancing healthcare access, quality, and costs. CONCLUSION Balancing healthcare access, quality, and costs remains a significant challenge in health economics and public policy. Health economics and public policy: Balancing healthcare access, quality, and costs.
[320] Public-Private Partnerships in Health - Healthcare Economist — A paper by Fabre and Straub (2023) examines how public-private partnerships (PPP) have worked in practice. Why would linking public and private provisions of goods and services be useful? One reason is that the public sector might have policy goals (e.g., providing health care to the poor), which the private sector may not provide in a free market system.
[322] Exploring the role of economics in prioritization in public health ... — Engagement is a key issue for the development of this agenda. If real progress is to be made with the application of health economics to public health, a relationship needs to be developed between research and policy that is maintained over a long period. In many ways, this study was the start of a process, but much more work needs to be done.